A background Report for the National Dialogue on Radioactive Materials Product Stewardship

1. Executive Summary i

2. Introduction 7

3. Product stewardship 10

3.1 The “Justification” Principle in Radiation Protection 10

3.2 Principles of Product Stewardship 11

3.3 Life Cycle Approach in this Project 12

Device Production, Sale & Use 13

Device Post - Use 13

4. The Environmental and Human Health Hazards 14

4.1 Radionuclides and Nuclear Fixed Gauges 14

4.2 Radionuclides and Tritium Exit Signs 14

4.3 Risk Information 15

4.4 Environmental Incidents in the NMED Database 18

5. Regulatory requirements 25

5.1 Federal Requirements 25

General License Requirements 27

Labeling 28

Annual Registration Requirements for Certain Devices 29

Low Level Waste (LLW) Disposal Regulations 31

5.2 State Requirements and Programs 32

5.3 General License Registrations 33

5.4 Enforcement 36

5.5 Codes/Standards 37

Standards Relevant to Exit Signs 37

Standards Relevant to Nuclear Fixed Gauges 37

Standards Relevant to Cleanup and Exposure 38

5.6 Export/Import 38

Export 39

How Export Actually Works 39

Import 40

Recent Import Initiatives to Enhance Accountability 40

5.7 Summary of Findings 42

6. Manufacturing, Sales, and use 43

6.1 Nuclear Fixed Gauges 43

6.1.1 Product Functionality 43

6.1.2 Product Applications 43

6.1.3 Radioactive Components 43

6.1.4 Major Product Manufacturers 45

6.1.5 Product Costs 45

6.1.6 Major Distribution Channels 46

6.1.7 Quantity Produced/Sold Annually 47

6.1.8 Reuse/Transfer 48

6.1.9 Hazards During Manufacture, Sales and Use 48

6.1.10 Alternative Non-Radioactive Gauge Technologies 49

6.2 Tritium Exit Signs 51

6.2.1 Product Functionality 51

6.2.2 Product Applications 51

6.2.3 Radioactive Components 51

6.2.4 Major Product Manufacturers 52

6.2.5 Product Costs 52

6.2.6 Major Distribution Channels 53

6.2.7 Quantity Produced/Sold Annually 54

6.2.8 Reuse/Transfer 55

6.2.9 Hazards During Manufacture, Sales and Use 55

6.2.10 Alternative Exit Sign Technologies 55

6.3 Summary of Findings 58

Nuclear Fixed Gauges 58

Tritium Exit Signs 59

7. End of Life Management 60

7.1 Current Collection and Disposal Practices 60

Recycling and Reuse of Nuclear Fixed Gauges 60

Recycling and Reuse of Tritium Exit Signs 62

Land Disposal 63

7.2 Radioactive Devices in Solid Waste Streams 67

Waste to Energy Facilities 67

Solid Waste Landfills 67

7.3 Radioactive Materials in Recycled Metals 68

7.4 Management of Orphan Sources 71

7.4.1 “Orphan Source Project” 72

7.4.2 Off-site Source Recovery project at LANL 73

7.4.3 Root Causes 73

7.5 Security 74

7.6 Summary of Findings 75

8. Stakeholder Groups 77

Manufacturers and Distributors 77

Industry Associations 77

Waste Brokers, Recyclers, & Disposal Facilities 78

Government - Federal 78

Government - State 79

Professional Organizations 79

9. Bibliography 80

APPENDIX A: ORGANIZATIONS PROVIDING RESEARCH AND INFORMATION FOR THIS PROJECT 84

Appendix B: Glossary of Terms 86

Appendix C: Radiation Hazards/Conversion Chart 92

Appendix D: SOME Manufacturers and Distributors of Nuclear Gauges/Devices and tritium exit signs 93

Appendix e: SOME Waste Disposal and Source Recovery Vendors 97

Appendix f: Scrap Metal Melting Incidents in the U.S. 98

Table 1 Summary of Key Issues ii

Figure 1. Life Cycle of a Nuclear Fixed Gauge or Tritium Exit Sign 13

14

Table 2. Principal Radioisotopes in nuclear fixed gauges 14

Table 3. Tritium Radioisotope in Self-Luminous Exit Signs 15

Table 4. Whole body total doses from various sources 16

Table 5. Yearly comparison of reportable events for nuclear fixed gauges 20

Table 6. Summary of Incidents for Nuclear Fixed Gauges, 1995 - 2003 20

Table 7. Summary of Incidents for Tritium Exit Signs 21

Figure 2. Documented Tritium Exposures from Four Incidents 23

Table 8. Tritium Exit Sign Incident Costs 23

Figure 3. Contamination Levels from tritium exit sign incidents. 24

Table 9. Role of Major Federal Agencies and Departments 25

Table 10. Regulatory Categories for End Users of Certain Sealed Sources 26

Table 11. History of Regulations and Activities Leading to Enhanced GL Device Registration 29

Figure 4. Map of Agreement and Non-Agreement States 32

Table 12. Estimate of Annual Nuclear Fixed Gauge general license Registrations over the last Twenty Years in All States 34

Table 13. Estimate of Annual Tritium Exit Signs Registrations over the last Twenty Years in All States 35

Table 14. GL Device Registration Information from Massachusetts 36

Table 15. Relevant Radiation Cleanup Standards. 38

Table 16. Industries Using Nuclear Fixed Gauges 44

Figure 5. Nuclear Fixed Gauge Sales Based on Estimated Registrations. 47

Table 17 Emergency Exit Lighting Cost Comparison 53

Figure 6. Tritium Exit Signs as a Function of Estimated Registrations 54

Table 18. Increased Sales of LED Emergency Lighting 57

Table 19. Prices for Sealed Source Return and Transfer 60

Table 20. Waste Broker Estimates of Recycling/Disposal Costs. 61

Table 21. Total Number of Signs Recycled by Two Manufacturers from 2000 to 2002 63

Table 22. Disposal Rates at US Ecology, Inc. Richland, WA. Effective January 1, 2003 65

Table 23. Disposal Rate Schedule for non-Atlantic Compact Waste at Barnwell 66

Table 24. U.S. Reported Meltings (Yusko, 2002) 69